Basal Ganglia Function and Location

The basal ganglia are a group of neurons (also called nuclei) located deep within the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. The basal ganglia consist of the corpus striatum (a major group of basal ganglia nuclei) and related nuclei. The basal ganglia are involved primarily in processing movement-related information. They also process information related to emotions, motivations, and cognitive functions. Basal ganglia dysfunction is associated with a number of disorders that influence movement including Parkinsons disease, Huntington disease, and uncontrolled or slow movement (dystonia). Basal Nuclei Function The basal ganglia and related nuclei are characterized as one of three types of nuclei. Input nuclei receive signals from various sources in the brain. Output nuclei send signals from the basal ganglia to the thalamus. Intrinsic nuclei relay nerve signals and information between the input nuclei and output nuclei. The basal ganglia receive  information from the cerebral cortex and thalamus through input nuclei. After the information has been processed, it is passed along to intrinsic nuclei and sent to output nuclei. From the output nuclei, the information is sent to the thalamus. The thalamus passes the information on to the cerebral cortex. Basal Ganglia Function: Corpus Striatum The corpus striatum is the largest group of basal ganglia nuclei. It consists of the caudate nucleus, putamen, nucleus accumbens, and the globus pallidus. The caudate nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens are input nuclei, while the globus pallidus is considered output nuclei. The corpus striatum uses and stores the neurotransmitter dopamine and is involved in the reward circuit of the brain. Caudate Nucleus: These  C-shaped paired nuclei (one in each hemisphere) are located primarily in the frontal lobe region of the brain. The caudate has a head region that curves and extends forming an elongated body that continues to  taper at its tail. The tail of the caudate ends in the temporal lobe at a limbic system structure known as the amygdala. The caudate nucleus is involved in motor processing and planning. It is also involved in memory storage (unconscious and long-term), associative and procedural learning, inhibitory control, decision making, and planning.Putamen: These  large rounded nuclei (one in each hemisphere) are located in the forebrain and along with the caudate nucleus  form the dorsal striatum. The putamen is connected to the caudate nucleus at the  head region of the caudate. The putamen is involved in voluntary and involuntary motor control.Nucleus Accumbens: These  paired nuclei (one in each hemisphere) are located between the caudate nucleus an d putamen. Along with the olfactory tubercle (sensory processing center in the olfactory cortex), the nucleus accumbens forms the ventral region of the striatum. The nucleus accumbens is involved in the brains  reward circuit and behavior mediation.Globus Pallidus: These paired nuclei (one in each hemisphere) are located near the caudate nucleus and putamen. The globus pallidus is divided into internal and external segments and acts as one of the major output nuclei of the basal ganglia. It sends information from basal ganglia nuclei to the thalamus. The internal segments of the pallidus send the majority of output to the thalamus via the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA has an inhibitory effect on motor function. The external segments of the pallidus are intrinsic nuclei, relaying information between other basal ganglia nuclei and internal segments of the pallidus. The globus pallidus is involved in the regulation of voluntary movement. Basal Ganglia Function: Related Nuclei Subthalamic Nucleus: These small paired nuclei are a component of the diencephalon, located just below the thalamus. Subthalamic nuclei receive excitatory inputs from the cerebral cortex and have excitatory connections to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra. Subthalamic nuclei have both input and output connections to the caudate nucleus, putamen, and substantia nigra. The subthalamic nucleus plays a major role in voluntary and involuntary movement. It is also involved in associative learning and limbic functions. Subthalamic nuclei have connections with the limbic system through connections with the cingulate gyrus and nucleus accumbens.Substantia Nigra: This large mass of nuclei is located in the midbrain and is also a component of the brainstem. The substantia nigra is composed of the pars compacta and the pars reticulata. The pars reticulata segment forms one of the major inhibitory outputs of the basal ganglia and assists in the regulation of eye movements. The pars compact a segment is composed of intrinsic nuclei that relay information between input and output sources. It is involved mainly in motor control and coordination. Pars compacta cells contain pigmented nerve cells that produce dopamine. These neurons of the substantia nigra have connections with the dorsal striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) supplying the striatum with dopamine. The substantia nigra serves numerous functions including controlling voluntary movement, regulating mood, learning, and activity related to the brains reward circuit. Basal Ganglia Disorders Dysfunction of basal ganglia structures results in several movement disorders. Examples of these disorders include Parkinsons disease, Huntington disease, dystonia (involuntary muscle contractions), Tourette syndrome, and multiple system atrophy (neurodegenerative disorder). Basal ganglia disorders are commonly the result of damage to the deep brain structures of the basal ganglia. This damage may be caused by factors such as head injury, drug overdose, carbon monoxide poisoning, tumors, heavy metal poisoning, stroke, or liver disease. Individuals with basal ganglia dysfunction may exhibit difficulty in walking with uncontrolled or slow movement. They may also exhibit tremors, problems controlling speech, muscle spasms, and increased muscle tone. Treatment is specific to the causation of the disorder. Deep brain stimulation, electrical stimulation of targeted brain areas, has been used in the treatment of Parkinsons disease, dystonia, and Tourette syndrome. Sources Lanciego, Josà © L., et al. â€Å"Functional Neuroanatomy of the Basal Ganglia.† Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Dec. 2012.Parr-Brownlie, Louise C., and John N.J. Reynolds. â€Å"Basal Ganglia.† Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, Inc., 19 June 2016.Wichmann, Thomas, and Mahlon R. DeLong. â€Å"Deep-Brain Stimulation for Basal Ganglia Disorders.† Basal Ganglia, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1 July 2011.

Getting the Best Eugenics Medicine Essay Topics

Getting the Best Eugenics Medicine Essay Topics Apps can remind you to take your medicine in time, and if needed, assign an appointment with a physician. Patients will get a complete recovery not a short-term relief. They have no need to worry about during the treatment. The medication school was among the initial eight schools in the institution. Doctors are also able to acquire information from data for patients that are in danger of particular diseases to stop hospital re-admissions. Medicine is considered one of the most essential necessity to all of us. If you're interested in knowing more about Precision Medicine, visit NIH's website by going to this website. If keeping a normal sleep schedule isn't working for you, consult an expert for additional aid. Once an interaction happens, if it be between two people or between an individual and a product of any type, there's an experience happening. Maybe you currently have a generalized idea of what things to write in your mind, and the following will enable you to concentrate on some specific thought or perhaps change your choice. Ceding history is both dangerous and not simply inefficient, but anti-efficient as it will set your side back by a whole lot. Selecting any sort of therapy at the conclusion of life is an extremely personal choice. Low value care can be exceedingly costly and doesn't actually make people better. Once patients rely on a single kind western medicine for quite a while, it will raise the possibility of drug-tolerance condition. Very often it's the previous choice for patients who couldn't find help anywhere else. The Definitive Strategy for Eugenics Medicine Essay Topics The general effect of the shift is tricky to interpret until and unless all of the gene networks are known. In the surface of unknown side effects and hazards linked with modification in the human gene pool, genetic modification ought to be permitted to treat diseases but not to boost human capabilities. The decision for what trait or behaviour is good or healthy is dependent on the health of the planet, culture, and circumstances a youngster will face. Though, it doesn't offer overnight result and take sufficient time for curing over masturbation effects or some other health issues, but it cures all of the wellness problems permanently. The Eugenics Medicine Essay Topics Trap The knowledge management in healthcare is necessary for improving the services and offering the best possible therapy. UX designers should be somewhat clear on the pain points users are facing while using their goods for them to create the proper solutions. Clearly, you will find desirable traits in nearly all systems of though. There are many choices out there facilitating more accessible healthcare delivery options beyond typical clinical environments mobile and browser-based platforms offer you great solutions. There's a clear disconnect between patients and providers in regards to complementary therapies, so improving communication and education for the two groups is crucial. While the web provides a great selection of similar companies, it might not be simple to decide on a reliable one. At the exact same time, such data might be tough to comprehend and thus need additional discussion with healthcare providers. If you're confused with a selection of interesting topics to research on the web, it's much better to determine what interests you the most. Hence, you need to make certain you have read the above told tips which will help you compose a better piece of essay on medical. The previous tip is to adhere to the most important topic. Simply take a look at the list of 10 topics above and there ought to be one that you're interested in. Quite frequently, the very best topic is one which you truly care about, but you also will need to get well prepared to research it. You've got to avoid being immodest in the totally free medical essays for it's only going to destroy your impression. Sex offenders ought to be castrated. Sometimes you've got to pick the topic of your work from the topics list provided by your teacher. New Ideas Into Eugenics Medicine Essay Topics Never Before Revealed Writing a research paper on medical ethics might not be simple, but the success is dependent on the subject you select. These varieties of essay are focused on persuading audiences to their standpoint, and thus do not concentrate on imparting information. Writers should therefore be creative enough so they can come up with quality and thoroughly original literature review papers.

How Trophic Cascades Are Powerful Forces That Have A...

Yellow Perch (Perca flavenscens) Food Chain Dynamics in Lac la Biche, Alberta Proposal Jacob Thalen, Feb, 5, 2015 ThalenJ2@mymacewan.ca MacEwan University, Department of Biology Done in part for the requirements of BIOL 498 under the supervision of Dr. David Locky Dr. Mrinal Das. MacEwan University, Department of Biology. Abstract: Trophic cascades are powerful forces that have a pronounced effect on ecosystems. They occur when predation causes shifts in prey dynamics that indirectly lead to enhanced survival in the next lowest trophic level. Walleye fishing bans at Lac la Biche coinciding with a restocking effort have led to a large recovery of walleye populations. The increase in populations of a high trophic level predator should cause shifts in a lower trophic level species (yellow perch) prey preferences from fish towards invertebrate prey. 576 yellow perch stomach collected from 2009 - 2013 by Alberta Environment and Sustainable Resource Development were sent to MacEwan University for processing/analysis. Yellow perch stomachs will be measured (dry weight, empty weight), and prey items will be removed identified and weighed. Sampling procedure differs depending on the type of prey item removed from the stomach (fish, macro and micro invertebrates). Length and weight measurements will be taken fo r fish and macro invertebrates; whereas, micro invertebrates will be sub sampled until 50-100 individuals can be identified. Data will be analyzed using multi

Sports Science for Making Decisions and Implementing Rugby Skills

Question: Discuss about theSports Science. Answer: Introduction Traditional coaching methods involved in making decisions and implementing Rugby skills are deterministic since they do not produce a good performance and doubt with random disparities in play. As a result, they are adopted so as to reduce the unpredictability of movements in rugby players and ambiguity of the players decision-making practices. In spite of the practicality of traditional training approaches at a given moment of the competition season, the methods are insufficient in the preparation of the players for a match that entails non-linear features, and this will be encouraging predictability of the players. Awareness of Ecological environment might even radicalize the theoretical background sustaining the coaching and development of deciding in rugby sport. It gives emphasis to the part information available play to players in different environments which offer opportunities for their actions. The most significant informational limits for deciding and dominating the action in dynamic backgrounds like a rugby sport are those that emerge throughout in progressing performer-environment interfaces. Not actually the facts from past practices that are kept in the mind as representations(Joyce, 2014).Having dynamic performance surroundings, players, are unlikely to develop practical solutions primarily based exclusively on program results supported by past experiences of coaching .Concentrating on the environment of the player correlation at the time of training in rugby sports motivates players to look for practical solutions to get in the way if they are attacking or if they are defending. M ovement techniques are significant since they give players a way to maintain stability or generate instabilities and to solve strategic problems emerging during a match. Once a safe skill is grasped, constrictions around space and time and also environmental constraints are applied during the training period. The lineout is a feature of this game where the dominance of procedure in closed environs using traditional strategies is desirable over a sense diversion approach, in the underlying phases of ability acquisition. Once a player is upheld noticeable all around him is in a helpless position getting him to the ground carefully is principal (Scouller, 2011). There is the degree, however, to present restricted sessions as players turn out to be surer of their procedure. It is vital this occurs sooner or later in the training movement. It also essential to teach players unsuccessful tackling skills while in a closed background before advancing to an open training environment. There are scrutinizes of the 'one size fits all', conventional way to deal with guiding. The way to utilizing more traditional strategies for training these potentially unsafe fe atures of the game is considering individual answers for the issues introduced. It may not be conceivable if players are left to choose the best handle strategy or least demanding lifting method. Different strategies must be put into consideration when training, but safety should be noteworthy thought (Light,2014). Plan to enhance the central leadership of players has been distinguished. There is four phase coaching structure that can improve the decision making of the players: identify the issue; setting out a technique to tackle it; making an activity model; and assembling an essential wise decision exercise. It ought to be enhanced through preparing strategies: that give an exact harmony between solidness of activities, which offers structure to the players' execution, and variability, which permits them to adapt to the vulnerability of situational imperatives, for example, the conduct of particular opponents (Breed, 2011). Coaching Style Game sense is my typical coaching style though popularly used in many sports. The style employ training approaches founded on the customary method where it concentrates on the development of power. There is undoubtedly a guiding system taking into account of the Game Sense. In this style, the constraint-based tactic is the center of making of capable rugby players (Carlstedt, 2012). This idea produces players with astounding quality who are unique in making a wise decision in an exceptionally complex execution environment. The technique involves specific features of the game which are successfully trained utilizing more conventional, drill based techniques. This is particularly the situation when managing players in the Cognitive period of aptitude advancement while prioritizing their safety. The skills and methods used in and around the impact zone are obtained securely. It transfers strategic and tactical knowledge and practical skills that are essential for good performance. That incorporates the tackle and resulting challenge for the ball in the match. Players are therefore expected to build up self-assurance in contact keeping in mind that the end goal is preventing wound (Renshaw, 2010). References Ian Renshaw, K. D. (2010). Motor Learning in Practice: A Constraints-Led Approach. Routledge. Joyce, D. L. (2014). High-Performance Training for Sports. Human Kinetics. Ray Breed, M. S. (2011). Developing Game Sense Through Tactical Learning: A Resource for Teachers and Coaches. Cambridge University Press. Richard Light, J. R. (2014). Advances in Rugby Coaching: An Holistic Approach. Routledge. Roland A. Carlstedt, P. (2012). Evidence-Based Applied Sport Psychology: A Practitioner's Manual. Springer Publishing Company. Scouller, J. (2011). The Three Levels of Leadership: How to Develop Your Leadership Presence, Knowhow and Skill. Management Books 2000.

Is Rap Poetry

Introduction Poetry can be defined as a unique Art that is created and designed using sounds. Poetry as an Art uses sounds to create an expression of what is intended (Ntozake 1). Poetry has unique features that make it stand out as a form of Art. For example poems are popular for their application of rhyme, stress and meter (Ron 150). These features play a big role in enhancing sound patterns. The expression is thus brought out clearly when the poem is recited aloud (Randall 60). The question that arises is therefore whether the rap music is poetry.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Is Rap Poetry? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Rap Is Poetry Just like poetry, rap music uses sound to drive the intended message home. Rap artists play with their words to produce sounds that carry the intended message (Alan56). It is therefore evident that rap uses the same process as poetry to achieve its ultimate goal. Stanzas and verses are other features that make rap to be classified as poetry. Rap music produces its sounds in beats in a line. These lines create a verse (Jace 2). This is the same case as in poetry. The physical appearances of both genres do not bring out any difference and this leads to conclusion that rap is poetry. Poetry is associated with lyrics as in ‘lyric poetry’ of American poets (Timpane and Watts 20). Rap just like this poetry derive song lyrics from a renowned instrument called lyre that was used by poets of ancient times (Nelson 130). Rap as music has lyrics. This usually creates rhyme. Rap is poetry as it is composed from happenings of day to day activities (McIver 219).This resembles poetry which depicts the literature and culture of people at a given period (Jimmy 478). Poetry is a language used to express a certain idea, this is similar to rap. It tells a lot about the age and culture of the people using the message it delivers (Bertice 12). Rap Is Not Poetry From linguistic point of view rap music is not poetry. This is because even though it looks like poetry, it takes the ill formed nature of poetry. That is, rappers usually manipulate their wordings to form a metrical pattern (Mel 43). In addition, if you take the other way round and read a poem containing blank verse will result to blank verse poetry and not a rap (Alonzo 602). In order to create rhyme, the rap music keeps on repeating the same phrase (Perkins 1).This is especially in the mediocre rap music. Even in the so called good rap music the complex lyrics provides a single rhyme pattern which in most cases is intended to create emphasis (Language Arts Higher Standards 6).Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Linguists also argue that rap does not use Standard language in terms of wording and sentence structure (Toni 3). For example they argue that Fifty Cent a rap artist prono unces ‘fifty’ as ‘fitty’. According to them ‘f’ cannot be substituted with a‘t’. Conclusion Rap music is poetry. This is because even the points argued against it such as the non- standard use of language in rap music do not hold water. Traditional poetry employed poetic devices which is non standard form of language. In summary, rap music is poetry and the opposition given lack viable support. Works Cited Ash, Mel. Beat Spirit: The Way of the Beat Writers as a Living Experience. Penguin, 1997. Berry, Bertice. The Haunting of Hip Hop. Broadway Books, 2002. Blackman, Toni. â€Å"The Influence of Rap on Spoken Word.† 2001. Web. Clayton, Jace. â€Å"Hip-Hop’s Radical Roots.† 1999. Retrieved from https://www.infoplease.com/hip-hops-radical-roots George, Nelson. Hip Hop America. Penguin, 1998.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Is Rap Poetry? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/pag e Learn More James, Jimmy. â€Å"The History of Rap.† 2005. Web. McIver, Denise L. Droppin’ Science: Straight-up Talk from Hip Hop’s Greatest Voices. Crown, 2002.Language Arts Higher Standards. New Haven Public Schools, 2002. Light, Alan, ed. The Vibe History of Hip Hop. Three Rivers Press, 1999. Padgett, Ron. Handbook of Poetic Forms. Teachers and Writers Collaborative, 1987. Perkins, William Eric, ed. Droppin’ Science: Critical Essays on Rap Music and Hip Hop Culture. Temple University Press, 1995. Randall, Dudley, ed. The Black Poets. Bantam, 1971. Shange, Ntozake. Nappy Edges. St. Martin’s, 1978. 50-51.Advertising Looking for essay on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More John Timpane and Maureen Watts. Poetry for Dummies. Hungry Minds, 2001. Westbrook, Alonzo T. Hip Hoptionary: The Dictionary of Hip Hop Terminology.Broadway Books, 2002. This essay on Is Rap Poetry? was written and submitted by user Kristina Douglas to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Booker T. Washington, Early Black Leader and Educator

Booker T. Washington, Early Black Leader and Educator Booker T. Washington (April 5, 1856–November 14, 1915) was a prominent black educator, author, and leader of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Born into slavery, Washington rose to a position of power and influence, founding the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama in 1881 and overseeing its growth into a well-respected black university. Washington was a controversial figure in his time and since, criticized for being too accommodating on the issues of segregation and equal rights. Fast Facts: Booker T. Washington Known For: Born a slave, Washington became a prominent black educator and leader during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, founding the Tuskegee Institute.Also Known As: Booker Taliaferro Washington; The Great AccommodatorBorn: April 5, 1856 (the only record of this birthdate was in a now-lost family Bible) in Hales Ford, VirginiaParents: Jane and unknown father, described in Washingtons autobiography as a white man who lived on one of the nearby plantations.Died: November 14, 1915 in Tuskegee, AlabamaEducation: As a child laborer, after the Civil War, Washington attended school at night and then school for one hour a day. At 16, he attended the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. He attended the Wayland Seminary for six months.Published Works:  Up From Slavery, The Story of My Life and Work, The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the Race from Slavery, My Larger Education, The Man Farthest DownAwards and Honors: First black American to receive an honorary degree from Harv ard University (1896). First black American invited to dine at the White House, with President Theodore Roosevelt (1901).Spouses: Fanny Norton Smith Washington, Olivia Davidson Washington, Margaret Murray WashingtonChildren: Portia, Booker T. Jr., Ernest, adopted niece of Margaret Murray WashingtonNotable Quote: In all things that are purely social we [blacks and whites] can be separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress. Early Life Booker T. Washington was born in April 1856 on a small farm in Hales Ford, Virginia. He was given the middle name Taliaferro but no last name. His mother Jane was a slave and worked as the plantation cook.  In Washingtons autobiography, he wrote that his father- whom he never knew - was a white man, possibly from a neighboring plantation. Booker had an older brother, John, also fathered by a white man. Jane and her sons occupied a tiny, one-room cabin. Their dreary home lacked proper windows and had no beds for its occupants. Bookers family rarely had enough to eat and sometimes resorted to theft to supplement their meager provisions. Around 1860, Jane married Washington Ferguson, a slave from a nearby plantation. Booker later took the first name of his stepfather as his last name. During the Civil War, the slaves on Bookers plantation, like many slaves in the South, continued to work for the owner even after the issuance of Lincolns 1863 Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865 after the war ended, Booker T. Washington and his family moved to Malden, West Virginia, where Bookers stepfather had found a job as a salt packer for the local salt works. Working in the Mines Living conditions in their new home were no better than those back at the plantation. Nine-year-old Booker worked alongside their stepfather packing salt into barrels. He despised the work but did learn to recognize numbers by taking note of those written on the sides of the salt barrels. Like many former slaves during the post-Civil War era, Booker longed to learn how to read and write. When a black school opened in a nearby community, Booker begged to go. His stepfather refused, insisting that the family needed the money he brought in from the salt packing. Booker eventually found a way to attend school at night. When he was 10, his stepfather took him out of school and sent him to work in the nearby coal mines. From  Miner to Student In 1868, 12-year-old Booker T. Washington found a job as a houseboy in the home of the wealthiest couple in Malden, General Lewis Ruffner, and his wife Viola. Mrs. Ruffner was known for her high standards and strict manner. Washington, responsible for cleaning the house and other chores, impressed Mrs. Ruffner, a former teacher, with his sense of purpose and a commitment to improving himself. She allowed him to attend school for an hour a day. Determined to continue his education, 16-year-old Washington left the Ruffner household in 1872 to attend Hampton Institute, a school for blacks in Virginia. After traveling over 300 miles- by train, stagecoach, and on foot- Washington arrived at Hampton Institute in October of that year. Miss Mackie, the principal at Hampton, was not entirely convinced that the young country boy deserved a place at her school. She asked Washington to clean and sweep a recitation room for her; he did the job so thoroughly that Miss Mackie pronounced him fit for admission. In his memoir Up From Slavery, Washington later referred to that experience as his college examination. Hampton Institute To pay his room and board, Washington worked as a janitor at Hampton Institute. Rising early in the morning to build the fires in the school rooms, Washington also stayed up late every night to complete his chores and work on his studies. Washington greatly admired the headmaster at Hampton, General Samuel C. Armstrong, and considered him his mentor and role model. Armstrong, a veteran of the Civil War, ran the institute like a military academy, conducting daily drills and inspections. Although academic studies were offered at Hampton, Armstrong placed emphasis on teaching trades. Washington embraced all that Hampton Institute offered him, but he was drawn to a teaching career rather than a trade. He worked on his oratory skills, becoming a valued member of the schools debate society. At his 1875 commencement, Washington was among those called upon to speak. A reporter from The New York Times was present at the commencement and praised the speech given by 19-year-old Washington in his column the following day. First Teaching Job Booker T. Washington returned to Malden after his graduation with his newly acquired teaching certificate. He was hired to teach at the school in Tinkersville, the same school he had himself attended before Hampton Institute. By 1876, Washington was teaching hundreds of students- children during the day and adults at night. During his early years of teaching, Washington developed a philosophy toward the advancement of blacks. He believed in achieving the betterment of his race by strengthening the character of his students and teaching them a useful trade or occupation. By doing so, Washington believed, blacks would assimilate more easily into white society, proving themselves an essential part of that society. After three years of teaching, Washington appears to have gone through a period of uncertainty in his early 20s. He abruptly and inexplicably quit his post, enrolling in a Baptist theological school in Washington, D.C. Washington quit after only six months and rarely ever mentioned this period of his life. Tuskegee Institute In February 1879, Washington was invited by General Armstrong to give the spring commencement speech at Hampton Institute that year. His speech was so impressive and so well received that Armstrong offered him a teaching position at his alma mater. Washington began teaching night classes in the fall of 1879. Within months of his arrival at Hampton, night enrollment tripled. In 1881, General Armstrong was asked by a group of educational commissioners from Tuskegee, Alabama for the name of a qualified white man to run their new school for blacks. The general instead suggested Washington for the job. At only 25 years old, former slave Booker T. Washington became the principal of what would become Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute. When he arrived at Tuskegee in June 1881, however, Washington found that the school had not yet been built. State funding was earmarked only for teachers salaries, not for supplies or the building of the facility. Washington quickly found a suitable plot of farmland for his school and raised enough money for a down payment. Until he could secure the deed to that land, he held classes in an old shack adjacent to a black Methodist church. The first classes began an astonishing 10 days after Washingtons arrival. Gradually, once the farm was paid for, the students enrolled at the school helped repair the buildings, clear the land, and plant vegetable gardens. Washington received books and supplies donated by his friends at Hampton. As word spread of the great strides made by Washington at Tuskegee, donations began to come in, mainly from people in the north who supported the education of freed slaves. Washington went on a fundraising tour throughout the northern states, speaking to church groups and other organizations. By May 1882, he had collected enough money to construct a large new building on the Tuskegee campus. (During the schools first 20 years, 40 new buildings would be constructed on campus, most of them by student labor.) Marriage, Fatherhood, and Loss In August 1882, Washington married Fanny Smith, a young woman who had just graduated from Hampton. A great asset to her husband, Fanny became very successful at raising money for Tuskegee Institute and arranged many dinners and benefits. In 1883, Fanny gave birth to the couples daughter Portia. Sadly, Washingtons wife died the following year of unknown causes, leaving him a widower at only 28 years old. In 1885, Washington married again. His new wife, 31-year-old Olivia Davidson, was the lady principal of Tuskegee at the time of their marriage. (Washington held the title administrator.) They had two children together- Booker T. Jr. (born in 1885) and Ernest (born in 1889). Olivia Washington developed health problems after the birth of their second child and she died of a respiratory ailment in 1889 at the age of 34. Washington had lost two wives within a period of only six years. Washington married his third wife, Margaret Murray, in 1892. She, too, was the lady principal at Tuskegee. She helped Washington run the school and care for his children and accompanied him on his many fundraising tours. In later years, she was active in several black womens organizations. Margaret and Washington were married until his death. They had no biological children together but adopted Margarets orphaned niece in 1904. The Growth of Tuskegee Institute As Tuskegee Institute continued to grow both in enrollment and in reputation, Washington nonetheless found himself in the constant struggle of trying to raise money to keep the school afloat. Gradually, however, the school gained statewide recognition and became a source of pride for Alabamans, leading the Alabama legislature to allocate more funds toward the salaries of instructors. The school also received grants from philanthropic foundations that supported education for blacks. Tuskegee Institute offered academic courses but placed the greatest emphasis on industrial education, focusing on practical skills that would be valued in the southern economy such as farming, carpentry, blacksmithing, and building construction. Young women were taught housekeeping, sewing, and mattress-making. Always on the lookout for new money-making ventures, Washington conceived the idea that Tuskegee Institute could teach brick-making to its students, and eventually make money selling its bricks to the community. Despite several failures in the early stages of the project, Washington persisted- and eventually succeeded. The Atlanta Compromise Speech By the 1890s, Washington had become a well-known and popular speaker, although his speeches were considered controversial by some. For instance, he delivered a speech at Fisk University in Nashville in 1890 in which he criticized black ministers as uneducated and morally unfit. His remarks generated a firestorm of criticism from the black community, but he refused to retract any of his statements. In 1895, Washington delivered the speech that brought him great fame. Speaking in Atlanta at the Cotton States and International Exposition, Washington addressed the issue of racial relations in the United States. The speech came to be known as The Atlanta Compromise. Washington expressed his firm belief that blacks and whites should work together to achieve economic prosperity and racial harmony. He urged southern whites to give black businessmen a chance to succeed in their endeavors. What Washington did not support, however, was any form of legislation that would promote or mandate racial integration or equal rights. In a nod to segregation, Washington proclaimed: In all things that are purely social, we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress. His speech was widely praised by southern whites, but many in the black community were critical of his message and accused Washington of being too accommodating to whites, earning him the name The Great Accommodator. Tour of Europe and Autobiography Washington gained international acclaim during a tour of Europe in 1899. Washington gave speeches to various organizations and socialized with leaders and celebrities, including Queen Victoria and Mark Twain. Before leaving for the trip, Washington stirred up controversy when asked to comment upon the murder of a black man in Georgia who had been strung up and burned alive. He declined to comment on the horrific incident, adding that he believed that education would prove to be the cure for such actions. His tepid response was condemned by many black Americans. In 1900, Washington formed the National Negro Business League (NNBL), with the goal of promoting black-owned businesses. The following year, Washington published his successful autobiography, Up From Slavery. The popular book found its way into the hands of several philanthropists, resulting in many large donations to Tuskegee Institute. Washingtons autobiography remains in print to this day and is considered by many historians to be one of the most inspirational books written by a black American. The stellar reputation of the institute brought in many notable speakers, including industrialist Andrew Carnegie and feminist Susan B. Anthony. Famed agricultural scientist George Washington Carver became a member of the faculty and taught at Tuskegee for nearly 50 years. Dinner With President Roosevelt Washington found himself at the center of controversy once again in October 1901, when he accepted an invitation from President Theodore Roosevelt to dine at the White House. Roosevelt had long admired Washington and had even sought his advice on a few occasions. Roosevelt felt it only fitting that he invite Washington to dinner. But the very notion that the president had dined with a black man at the White House created a furor among whites- both northerners and southerners. (Many blacks, however, took it as a sign of progress in the quest for racial equality.) Roosevelt, stung by the criticism, never again issued an invitation. Washington benefited from the experience, which seemed to seal his status as the most important black man in America. Later Years Washington continued to draw criticism for his accommodationist policies. Two of his greatest critics were William Monroe Trotter, a prominent black newspaper editor and activist, and W.E.B. Du Bois, a black faculty member at Atlanta University. Du Bois criticized Washington for his narrow views on the race issue and for his reluctance to promote an academically strong education for blacks. Washington saw his power and relevance dwindle in his later years. As he traveled around the globe giving speeches, Washington seemed to ignore glaring problems in America, such as race riots, lynchings, and the disenfranchisement of black voters in many southern states. Although Washington later spoke out more forcefully against discrimination, many blacks would not forgive him for his willingness to compromise with whites at the cost of racial equality. At best, he was viewed as a relic from another era; at worst, a hindrance to the advancement of his race. Death Washingtons frequent travel and busy lifestyle eventually took a toll on his health. He developed high blood pressure and kidney disease in his 50s and became seriously ill while on a trip to New York in November 1915. Insisting that he die at home, Washington boarded a train with his wife for Tuskegee. He was unconscious when they arrived and died a few hours later on November 14, 1915, at the age of 59. Booker T. Washington was buried on a hill overlooking the Tuskegee campus in a brick tomb built by students. Legacy From a slave to the founder of a black university, Booker T. Washingtons life traces the vast changes undergone and distances traversed by black Americans after the Civil War and into the twentieth century. He was an educator, prolific writer, orator, adviser to presidents, and considered the most prominent black American at the height of his career. His accommodationist approach to advancing the economic lives and rights of black in America was controversial even in its own time and remains controversial to this day. Sources Harlan, Louis R. Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901. Oxford, 1972.Wells, Jeremy. â€Å"Booker T. Washington (1856–1915).† Encyclopedia Virginia.

The Great Permian-Triassic Extinction

The Great Permian-Triassic Extinction The greatest mass extinction of the last 500 million years or Phanerozoic Eon happened 250 million years ago, ending the Permian Period and beginning the Triassic Period. More than nine-tenths of all species disappeared, far exceeding the toll of the later, more familiar Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction. For many years not much was known about the Permian-Triassic (or P-Tr) extinction. But starting in the 1990s, modern studies have stirred the pot, and now the P-Tr is a field of ferment and controversy. Fossil Evidence of the Permian-Triassic Extinction The fossil record shows that many lines of life went extinct both before and at the P-Tr boundary, especially in the sea. Most notable were the trilobites, the graptolites, and the tabulate and rugose corals. Almost completely exterminated were the radiolarians, brachiopods, ammonoids, crinoids, ostracodes and conodonts. Floating species (plankton) and swimming species (nekton) suffered more extinctions than bottom-dwelling species (benthos). Species that had calcified shells (of calcium carbonate) were penalized; creatures with chitin shells or no shells did better. Among the calcified species, those with thinner shells and those with more ability to control their calcification tended to survive. On land, the insects had severe losses. A great peak in the abundance of fungus spores marks the P-Tr boundary, a sign of massive plant and animal death. Higher animals and land plants underwent significant extinctions, though not as devastating as in the marine setting. Among the four-legged animals (tetrapods), the ancestors of the dinosaurs came through the best. The Triassic Aftermath The world recovered very slowly after the extinction. A small number of species had large populations, rather like the handful of weed species that fill an empty lot. Fungus spores continued to be abundant. For millions of years, there were no reefs and no coal beds. Early Triassic rocks show completely undisturbed marine sediments- nothing was burrowing in the mud. Many marine species, including the dasyclad algae and calcareous sponges, disappeared from the record for millions of years, then reappeared looking just the same. Paleontologists call these Lazarus species (after the man Jesus revived from death). Presumably they lived on in sheltered places from which no rocks have been found. Among the shelly benthic species, the bivalves and gastropods became dominant, as they are today. But for 10 million years they were very small. The brachiopods, which had completely dominated the Permian seas, nearly vanished. On land the Triassic tetrapods were dominated by the mammal-like Lystrosaurus, which had been obscure during the Permian. Eventually the first dinosaurs arose, and the mammals and amphibians became small creatures. Lazarus species on land included the conifers and ginkgos. Geologic Evidence of the Permian-Triassic Extinction Many different geologic aspects of the extinction period have been documented recently: Salinity in the sea fell sharply during the Permian for the first time, changing oceanic physics to make deep water circulation more difficult.The atmosphere went from very high oxygen content (30%) to very low (15%) during the Permian.The evidence shows global warming AND glaciations near the P-Tr.Extreme erosion of the land suggests that ground cover disappeared.Dead organic matter from the land flooded the seas, pulling dissolved oxygen from the water and leaving it anoxic at all levels.A geomagnetic reversal occurred near the P-Tr.A series of great volcanic eruptions was building up a gigantic body of basalt called the Siberian Traps. Some researchers argue for a cosmic impact at P-Tr time, but the standard evidence of impacts is missing or disputed. The geologic evidence fits an impact explanation, but it does not demand one. Instead the blame seems to fall on volcanism, as it does for other mass extinctions. The Volcanic Scenario Consider the stressed biosphere late in the Permian: low oxygen levels restricted land life to low elevations. Ocean circulation was sluggish, raising the risk of anoxia. And the continents sat in a single mass (Pangea) with a reduced diversity of habitats. Then great eruptions begin in what is Siberia today, starting the largest of Earths large igneous provinces (LIPs). These eruptions release huge amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulfur gases (SOx). In the short term the SOx cools the Earth while in the longer term the CO2 warms it. The SOx also creates acid rain while CO2 entering the seawater makes it harder for calcified species to build shells. Other volcanic gases destroy the ozone layer. And finally, magma rising through coal beds releases methane, another greenhouse gas. (A novel hypothesis argues that the methane was instead produced by microbes that acquired a gene enabling them to eat organic matter in the seafloor.) With all of this happening to a vulnerable world, most life on Earth could not survive. Luckily it has never been quite this bad since then. But global warming poses some of the same threats today.